Mom: Teacher, Counselor, Role Model, and Friend Essay -- Friendship Ess

Mom Teacher, Counselor, Role Model, and Friend When asked to identify the person who has had the or so powerful influence in my life, the most obvious choice is my mom. She has been my teacher, counselor, role model, and friend for the past 17 years. For me, she has become a source of inspiration and a constant reminder of what true fuck really means. In considering my mothers position and influence as a role model, I am reminded of a quote from Charlotte Brontes Villette In addition she gave me the originality of her character to demand the steadiness of her virtues...the power of her passions to admire, the truth of her feelings to trust. All these things she had, and for these things I clung to her. (Chap. 4) The virtues that stand out most poignantly in my mothers character are her dedication and self sacrifice. On the strength of her principles, she gave up a successful career in order to give my brother and I the strongest educational foundation possible. No obstacle seems insuperable when it comes to our education even when my algebra classes seemed to ha...

The Death Penalty Essay -- capital punishment, death penalty

As of January 1, 2010, 3,261 people live on close row (Death). Fewer than 3,261 people live in my small town of Belle Plaine, so to me this number is outrageous. Inmates that wait on the death penalization jail create a problem for everyone in the country. If we would put these gyps through the death penalty quickly, we could take the problem away from the country. Why do we keep murderers and criminals on death row around? People argue the controversial topic of the death penalty very thoroughly, and address all sides. On one side people argue that we would save money and the death penalty sets an example for new(prenominal) criminals, while on the opposition people argue that life without parole is cheaper, capital punishment is morally wrong, and innocent people mistakenly are killed. The get together States abolished the death penalty, also called capital punishment, in 1963. Throughout the 1960s, the Supreme Court battled many cases involving whether the death pena lty should be allowed. The Supreme Court finally command in 1976 that the death penalty be enforced by the states that wanted it and non enforced by those who do not want it. Currently in the United States, thirty-five states have the death penalty, while fifteen do not. Even though some states have the death penalty, seven states have not performed any executions. Seventy percent of the public approves of the death penalty to be enforced throughout the states (Robinson). I also support the death penalty, and I count on the death penalty should be enforced for many cases.Capital punishment would save money throughout the nation. Ten years ago, the average cost for an inmate was $22,650, and now ten years later the cost has only risen. (Stephan). This $22,650 may not... ... Richard Dieter. Death Penalty Information Center. N.p., 2010.Web. 28 April 2011.Death Row Inmates by State. Chart. DeathPenalty.org. N.p., 20 September 2010. Web. 25 April 2011.Feingold, Russ. Irrevocab le Mistakes. ProCon.org. 7 Feb. 2007. Web. 28 April 2011.Number of Executions. Chart. DeathPenalty.org. N.p., 20 September 2010. Web. 28 April 2011.Sharp, Dudley. Cost of Death Penalty vs. Life in Prison. ProCon.org. 1 Oct. 1997. Web. 26 April 2011. Robinson, B.A. Part 1 Death Penalty Data. ReligiousTolerance.org. Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance., 7 Dec. 2009. Web. 25 April 2011.Stephan, James J. The High Cost of Imprisonment in America. Noors List. Tina Dorsey and Tom Hester., June 2004. Web. 26 April 2011.Top 10 Pros and Cons Should the Death Penalty Be Allowed? ProCon.org. N.p., 14 April 2009. Web. 26 April 2011.

William Cullen Bryant Examines Nature :: Biography Biographies Essays

William Cullen Bryant Examines Nature William Cullen Bryant can very easily be united to the Transc windupentalists. Most of his themes in his writings are concerning the nature of life and the nature of nature. The Yellow Violet is an example of a poem about the nature of life. The Prairies, on the other hand, is an example of the nature of nature. Though these two poems of Bryants are both about the beautiful world of trees, flowers, and fields, they take on a different posture of nature itself. The Yellow Violet vividly expresses the nature of life in a very simple way. Bryant takes the cycle of a yellow violet and uses it to mention the humanistic world around him. It is very clever, too, that when he does this, he uses personification. A modest flower (2674) pops out from the dark, damp leaves below and makes the woods of April bright (2675). spot the rest of the forests and fields go on with their life cycle this tiny flower does its best to make things pretty and happy. The persona describes this sight as an archeozoic smile (2675) and that is what kept a smile on his own face. Even the various blooms and colors that surface in May are not as joyful because when the violet blooms, it is the first color you see after a long winter of gray. This modesty of the meek flower is compared to that of a person. Its usually the poorer, less(prenominal) known people in the world that are the ones who really cheer you up. They will never let you down. As the persona in the poem points out, So they, who climb to wealth, forget (2675). This is the most important line of the entire poem. It is basically saying that those who are wrapped up in material things are still th...wrapped up. They are not dependable. Thus, the yellow violet is the modest person, which are far and few, who you can always count on to stand by you in the end and brighten up your day. This is the illustration of the nature of life. The Prairies, however, takes on a littl e bit of a different perspective. Instead of using nature as a morality lesson, The Prairies is more of an account of the way of nature.

Traditional Ideologies :: essays research papers

Traditional IdeologiesThe texts that we, the indorser, tend to relate to most are the texts that reflect our values or include certain social issues of the present. Texts such as these are therefore quite commonly found beside the beds, on the coffee tables and in the bookcases of many Australians. These texts, in a way act as a barometer for values, and shifts in values in our society. This can be seen in many instances.For subject, take the feature fritter away The Castle. The typical Australian family, the Kerrigans, represented in this mental picture was not chosen by accident. No, no they were chosen because the writers of this film knew that everyday Australians could relate to the Kerrigans and in some ways see themselves in this simple family. The film endorses many Australian values and attitudes, to which the everyday Australian can not only relate to but also understand aswell. The text acts as a medium for the viewer to realise his/her own values and helps the viewer to recognise the social values that surround him/her.However, texts do not merely inform the reader of values present in the society. They can also reflect the current shift in values and attitudes away from the dominant ideologies. This can be seen to a great extent in the novel Cloudstreet by Tim Winton. In this text many characters are seen to get hold of somewhat different roles in the family that one would expect. Lester Lamb is an excellent example of this. The traditional role of the man in the house is to go out and work hard for his money and come home to a wife who would provide him and look after the house and the kids. However, Lester is portrayed as a sensitive man who cooks and cleans regularly aswell as helps with many of the household chores. He also seems to have no quarrel with his wife having most of the control over the household or him having to pull his own weight. This is of course a step away from the traditional ideology of what a man should act like.Thi s clever characterisation represents the shift away from the traditional gender roles that have for so long been enforced in our society. Which leaves the reader thinking, once again, about their own values and the now shifting values of the society.This point can be further seen in the short drool Neighbours, which is also written by Tim Winton.

An Investigation Of Japanese Corporate Culture, Its Trends And Changes

An Investigation of Japanese Corporate ending, Its Trends And ChangesJapanese Business & Culture bus 258.1Table of Contents1.0 Introduction2.0 bit3.0 Findings3.1 Changing social nuance.3.2 Business Culture in Japan3.3 Why change is take aimed3.4 What is Japan and her corporations doing to have and change4.0 Conclusion5.0 BibliographyJapanese Business & CultureAn investigation Japanese incorporated culture, itstrends and changes.1.0 IntroductionThis report is based around the followingquote "Japans corporate culture is the product of uniquely Japanese social andhistorical influences, so deeply rooted as to easily repel outside influences.Bur Japanese corporations need to change their basic goals...." This report willdiscuss nature of corporate culture in Japan, and why change is needed. Themaximum length is 2,000 words2.0 Procedure The report was produced using library based research because ofthe time scale and cost. The sources used include text books, journals andnewspapers.. The references have been made Harvard Style and can be make up inthe Bibliography.3.0 Findings The Japanese business culture has been described by Beedham as aculture that acts like a clan, in that there is a lifesize amount of authoritygiven to the man at the top, and in the commitment that is shown by the peoplearound him, Beedham points out that this can be evident in the way that theircar factories, investment banks and government ministries are ran.This clan-like-behaviour has the effect of making decision making painfully slow,with compromises having to be met in all directions, but this is scratch tochange, as the people of Japan are starting to change and have differentpriorities. These changes can be put down to several factors that are changingin Japanese society as a whole.3.1 Changing social culture. The increasing and speeding up of urbanisation isone way in which corporate culture is being changed. Because of thisurbanisation there is less commitmen t to groups as people become more individualand have their own priority in life. Marriage and family ties are also startingto loosen. Links between children, parents and grandparents are non the same asthey were ten years ago.The greatest impact on peoples commitment to their work is money. As theJapanese become richer, they are starting to see that there is... ...g the corporate culture slightlyJapanese corporations are not seen as been there for just profit. Profit isimportant, but it is not the only reason for the companys existence, butinvolves people and their future. This is however changing with corporationsstarting to set fiscal targets for themselves and cut costs.Ways in which the Japanese corporate culture is starting to change can be foundin the way that promotions are decided. In the past seniority meant everythingand no some positions are given on merit. Also, management positions arestarting to be taken up by foreigners, as well as R&D relocation outside Japan.Ja panese politics are also helping in the change of culture. deregulating andliberalisation lift a more dynamic organisation culture and structure butthese developments need backing up with further proposals to deregulate andpromote entrepreneurship5.0 BibliographyBrian Beedham, Tomorrows Japan, The Economist, July 13th 1996 Various Internetarticle with no title or author. FT 96 Dec 05 page 6/ Survey - Japanese diligence Routes to the top FT 96 Dec 02 page 20/ Lex Column Japan FT 96 Nov18 page 14/ Management prison term to pull back the screen

An Investigation Of Japanese Corporate Culture, Its Trends And Changes

An Investigation of Japanese Corporate Culture, Its Trends And ChangesJapanese backup & Culture bus 258.1Table of Contents1.0 Introduction2.0 Procedure3.0 Findings3.1 Changing accessible goal.3.2 Business Culture in Japan3.3 Why change is needed3.4 What is Japan and her corporations doing to develop and change4.0 Conclusion5.0 BibliographyJapanese Business & CultureAn investigation Japanese incarnate culture, itstrends and changes.1.0 IntroductionThis report is based around the followingquote "Japans corporate culture is the product of uniquely Japanese social andhistorical influences, so late rooted as to easily repel alfresco influences.Bur Japanese corporations need to change their basic goals...." This report willdiscuss nature of corporate culture in Japan, and why change is needed. Themaximum length is 2,000 words2.0 Procedure The report was produced using library based research because ofthe time racing shell and cost. The sources used include text books, journals andnewspapers.. The references generate been made Harvard Style and can be found inthe Bibliography.3.0 Findings The Japanese business culture has been described by Beedham as aculture that acts like a clan, in that there is a large amount of authoritygiven to the man at the top, and in the commission that is shown by the peoplearound him, Beedham points out that this can be evident in the way that theircar factories, investment banks and government ministries be ran.This clan-like-behaviour has the effect of making decision making painfully slow,with compromises having to be met in all directions, but this is jump tochange, as the people of Japan are jump to change and have differentpriorities. These changes can be put down to several factors that are changingin Japanese society as a whole.3.1 Changing social culture. The increasing and speeding up of urbanisation isone way in which corporate culture is being changed. Because of thisurbanisation there is less commitm ent to groups as people become more individualand have their own priority in life. Marriage and family ties are also startingto loosen. Links between children, parents and grandparents are not the same asthey were ten years ago.The greatest impact on peoples commitment to their work is money. As theJapanese become richer, they are starting to see that there is... ...g the corporate culture slightlyJapanese corporations are not seen as been there for just profit. Profit isimportant, but it is not the hardly reason for the companys existence, butinvolves people and their future. This is however changing with corporationsstarting to set financial targets for themselves and cut costs.Ways in which the Japanese corporate culture is starting to change can be foundin the way that promotions are decided. In the past seniority meant everythingand no some positions are given on merit. Also, management positions arestarting to be taken up by foreigners, as well as R&D relocation outside J apan.Japanese politics are also helping in the change of culture. Deregulation andliberalisation promote a more dynamic organisation culture and structure butthese developments need backing up with further proposals to deregulate andpromote entrepreneurship5.0 BibliographyBrian Beedham, Tomorrows Japan, The Economist, July 13th 1996 Various Internetarticle with no title or author. FT 96 Dec 05 page 6/ Survey - JapaneseIndustry Routes to the top FT 96 Dec 02 page 20/ Lex newspaper column Japan FT 96 Nov18 page 14/ Management Time to pull back the screen

Racism in Brazil

Introduction Racial disparity and disparity is non a mod concept to any nation. In fact, umteen were built on the back of slave grok, whether the slaves were natural massess or imported bodies. season galore(postnominal) nations have undertaken measures to overcome racial disparity, others have encouraged racial democracy. Brazil, a forward-looking and industrialized nation, suffers from racial discrimination based on their position in the world economy and built on the Ideology of the past.History Braziers memoir is rife with racism and sla real, dating back to Its discovery by Pedro Allover Cabal In 1500. Brazil was origin altogethery ascertaintled with the Intention of harvesting Broadloom. However, over age the profits from that were supplanted by sugar, Brazil became the leading producer of sugar In the Atlantic world. The production of all these exports meant cheap labor was needed. During this time, the Portuguese were move amid 4,000 and 5,000 slaves per yea r to Brazil from Angola and West Africa by the 18th century, integrity million slaves had been imported (117).The continually shifting landscape meant that Braziers exports continued to shift. By the time the 1 9th century came around, Braziers major export was coffee as sugar reduction had shifted to the Caribbean Islands. The continued influx of European slaves and citizens resulted in an uneven population. European labor was generally more than skilled and lately began to overtake slave labor. Around this same time, the abolition of slavery happened in 1888, resulting in a decline in the slave population.By 1888, it was estimated that only a half-million people were slaves, compargond to the one-and-a-half million slaves in 1872 (117). This is in part due to the fact that the coffee production process became more and more elaborate, requiring those with pesticides skills to take over. Coffee production soon fell into the hands of a wave of European immigrants, not freed slave s (122). The slaves that were freed lots became vagrants, homeless, Jobless and penniless (Roach, Analysis Braziers racial democracy). The history of Brazil continues to inform the current day Brazil.The current day population of Brazil tops 160 million, with about half of that beingness menacing. Yet, the black population is nearly absent from all levels of power, meaning government, congress, senate, the Judiciary, the higher ranks of the civil service and he armed forces (Roach, Analysis Braziers racial democracy). In 1999, the Minority Rights Group International reported that black and mixed race Brazilian shut up have higher Infant mortality rates, fewer long time of schooling, higher rates of unemployment, and earn less for the same work.Black men atomic number 18 more likely to be shot or arrested as crime suspects, and when ensnare guilty, get longer sentences (Roach, Analysis Braziers racial democracy). Racism Persists There are some theories as to why racism continu es to persist In modern day Brazil. One thing to look at Is their placement wealth the greater world economy. 22). When the Portuguese settled Brazil, they created a line of trade that cogitate on Portuguese and the plantation owners became very wealthy, all at the expense of the nearly three million black and mulatto slaves.A truly capitalist world is one that where each countries worth is weighed in terms of their strengths (military, trade, financial, production) and what they rotter contribute. A superpower such as the United States is naturally more diverse, which means that tolerance and racism are not tolerated as easily in modern day society. Core countries are those that have the retreat strengths and the circumferential countries are the ones that are expendable. Phillips understands the peripheral countries were exploited by the core, and semi peripheral countries were exploited by the core and exploited peripheral countries.The relations between these three geopoliti cal units are ones built on ine bore (122). Phillips goes on to assure that similar to the inequality that can be seen in a class system within a country, this template is now afford around the globe to view inequality on a world scale (122). In other words, Brazil is treated with discrimination based on their trade abilities and overall contribution. This has trickled down so that individuals are in any case being treated with the same discrimination.It is also important to note that racism is fundamentally root in processors class structures, historically shifting modes of production, distribution, and consumption, and increasingly, in the unequal exchanges that tie local political economies to the global processes of capitalism (Phillips 122). Braziers history of racial prejudice and discrimination has established a mode of living and ideology that persists to this day. It would be too easy to blame slavery on the world economy, but it is safe to say that he capitalist world e conomy has helped perpetuate racial prejudice and discrimination.Slavery existed long before profit was exchanged for labor. As Brazil has grown, the means to mixer mobility after emancipation was closely guarded by the Brazilian white ruling class, who allowed for a pool of relatively less expensive labor consisting in the main of Brazilian natives and other European immigrants (122). The influx of cheap European labor resulted in the black and mulatto population being pushed aside. After Brazil abolished slavery, the ex-slaves were left with cardinal hoicks work under the same conditions as when they were slaves or Join the masses of unemployed (Phillips 122).They had additional challenges they were competing with native Brazilian and European immigrants for a limited public figure of jobs where the new economic order was wage labor (122). Racism played a major role after the emancipation of the slaves as many of the ex-slaves were discriminated against in the free Job market. While the shift has been to the detriment of blacks and mulattos, racism has not helped the white population of Brazil (123). Despite the racism running rampant, there is no black movement in Brazil. There is seemingly no racial tension or conflict.Blacks that live in Salvador, who make up 80% of the population, say they feel safer in that environment than they do in the US (Roach, Analysis Braziers racial democracy). It is speculated that this is because appearances matter more in Brazil than heritage. In the US, one cast away of black ancestry means you are black, while in Brazil, if you appear white, you are perceived as white (Roach, Analysis Braziers racial democracy). It can also be noted that the US has a history of violent racism where oppressed populations were treated harshly. Those past grievances have not been forgotten, and in some cases, not forgiven freedom.It would seem as though the US hold ins under a shadow of racism, attempting to sweep it under the rug and pr etend that equality is real. Brazil does not operate under such false pretenses. Racism is alive and acknowledged. As of the 2010 census, 51% of Brazil identifies itself as black or brown. The government estimates that the income of white Brazilian is more than double that of black or brown Brazilian and that blacks are at a distinct disadvantage in relation to education and access to healthcare (Brazilian 2010 Census Highlights Racism Problem). The racial divide in Brazil is based on a social pyramid.Many will argue that the black community is poor because class, not race, stratifies their society. However, there are many that would disagree. According to Mario Theodore, an activist for social equality believes that slavery legacy of injustice and inequality can only be reversed by affirmative challenge policies, of the kind found in the United States (Race in Brazil Affirming a furcate). Yet, it is also fair to note that in the US, there are many of different races that are in positions of great power and that social class is often dictated by wealth.The history of the US supports the advancement of the white race, but progress is showing that race is beginning to take a backseat to skill set and overall acumen. In Brazil, the race line is well drawn. Most of those in the public eye, such as TV news anchors, doctors, dentists, fashion models, and lawyers are all white. The majority of black and mulattos are working in the blue collar trade, often deemed the unskilled labor pool. The salary disparity is even more telling. By 2011, the average black or brown worker was earning of what the average white worker made (Brazilian 2010 Census Highlights Racism Problem).Statistics do not differentiate between gender, only race, though it can be assumed that the same problem occurs between gender lines. Affirmative work on Brazil, once considered a racial democracy is fighting hard to shed that moniker. Racial democracy, in relation to Brazil, is defined as the th ought that compared to other nations racism was actually very marginal in Brazil (Tells, Discrimination and Affirmative Action in Brazil). However, today, most Brazilian concur that Brazil is victim to racial prejudice and discrimination.Blacks and mulattos are the major cities of widespread police violence and often earn half the income of their white counterparts. In addition, television and advertising portray Brazilian society as one that is almost only white (Tells, Discrimination and Affirmative Action in Brazil). This is because the working class and elite are almost entirely white, so the melting pot of races exists only in the working class and poor. According to Antonio Risers, a sociologist, Its clear that racism exists in the US. Its clear that racism exists in Brazil.But they are different kinds of racism (Race in Brazil Affirming a Divide). He continues to argue that the racism itself is nefarious and veiled, unlike the racism that utilise to run rampant in the US. In Brazil, there was never a UK Klux Klan or enforced segregation or even a ban on interracial marriage (Race in Brazil Affirming a Divide). Affirmative action is often put into place to attempt to create a racially diverse atmosphere. Most often this is in correlation to the workplace where employers do not discriminate based on race, gender, or religious affiliation.In Brazil, the new affirmative action can be most notably seen in the university setting. By 2008 almost 50% of Brazilian universities have a race-based affirmative action attend a university, students were required to pass a standardized test. Now, leading universities are mandated to allow a fixed percentage of nonwhite students to attend. In addition, they have quotas for indigenous peoples and for the disabled (Tells, Discrimination and Affirmative Action in Brazil). Even though affirmative action was put in place to help, it is not without controversy.Those that argue the policies include much of the media, priva te school students, their parents and the schools themselves, scholars and artists who alee the racial democracy ideal and even black students who believe in meritocracy (Tells, Discrimination and Affirmative Action in Brazil). They maintain that affirmative action does nothing to further racial equality instead, it merely promotes racial equality without any substance. In addition, many academics are fighting against affirmative action in schools and campaigning against quotas.They argue that enforcing affirmative action is, in itself, inherently an act of racism. It divides people into arbitrary affectation categories a feat, which is not as easy as it seems nice much of Brazil, is a country of mixed race (Race in Brazil Affirming a Divide). They also argue that it undermines the equality of the admissions process, even though in the past, nepotism and whom you know have been the quickest routes to advancement (Race in Brazil Affirming a Divide).Despite these arguments, studies h ave shown that many of the quota students are performing academically as well or better than their white counterparts. This can be attributed to the fact that many of those white students were admitted because they had the means and money to prepare for the entrance exam (Race in Brazil Affirming a Divide). The next target is the labor market, a place where affirmative action could show positive benefits. In the United States, only 12% of the population is black, yet we have a black president, many black politicians and millionaires.In contrast, Brazil has a limited number of black people in positions of power. Because of this, some private sector companies are making racial mixed bag a requirement in their recruiting process (Race in Brazil Affirming a Divide). But again, the same problem occurs that showed up in the university setting. on the button because a person is off different race does not mean they are qualified for the Job at hand. It often follows that work production and quality decline because employers are hiring based on color, not skill level.Unlike the US, affirmative action in Brazil is being done in a very Brazilian way. There is little to no government interference or enforcement. Universities and private companies are making their own policies. The Supreme Court is involved, but is slow to act in hopes that society will figure out their own issues (Race in Brazil Affirming a Divide). Society is moving profuse though. Businesses and advertisers are now targeting black populations, but changing the minds of the consumer sector is n easy task compared to changing the mindset of racism ingrained after age and years of overt racism.Many Brazilian assume that blacks and browns belong on the bottom of the social ladder, making the push for proactive change difficult (Race in Brazil Affirming a Divide). Solution? In order for Brazil to pull down the racial divide and move beyond racial democracy, the boundaries between black and white need t o be weakened. There is but despite this, the racial division is not nearly as rigid as they are in the US. An interesting note is that most Brazilian perceive their culture to be an example how ace and culture can coexist peacefully.Despite this somewhat awe-inspiring claim, it is still believed that 90% of the white population is prejudiced against the black and mulatto population. However, their idea of racism differs greatly from person to person so it is difficult to Judge what this truly means. In a recent event in Brazil, a six-year-old boy was kicked out of a pizza polar supposedly for the color of his skin. According to the eatery manager, he mistook the young boy as a local street boy. The boys parents have since then filed a complaint with the local police department ND are also considering taking legal actions.This story launched a huge race-debate in Brazil (Phillips Does Brazil Have a Race Problem). While stories like this continue to gain traction, it is hard to fig ure out where Brazil goes from here. Affirmative action plans seem like a step in the dependable direction, but that will not be enough to change 500 years in ingrained behavior. Brazil will need a make do economic and social shift if it wishes to eradicate racism. If the US is a learning curve, Brazil has a lot of work to do, and so does the US when it comes down to reality. ConclusionMany people around the world see Brazil as a country full of racial diversity where racism Just simply does not exist, where as others claims Brazil suffers from invisible racism where blacks earn less, live less, and are educated less. Although blacks make up for most of the population in Brazil they are still grossly under-represented in higher education, media, and politics. The continued racial divide will only be removed when government and individuals work together to not only acknowledge the problem, but find a way to move above and beyond racism and look at the individual for the value, not their skin color.

Asses sociological explanations for ethnic differences in educational achievement Essay

Asses sociological explanations for cultural differences in educational feat. 20 marks. Ethnicity refers to sh bed cultural practices, perspectives, and distinctions that specialise apart one group of people from an new(prenominal). That is, sociality is a shared cultural heritage. The most common causeistics distinguishing various ethnic groups are ancestry, a sense of history, spoken spoken language and religion. Modern Britain is said to be a multicultural society made up of many different ethnic groups.Achievement within education is rattling varied across cultures, with some more(prenominal) as Chinese and Indian students performing above the average, and African-Caribbean and Pakistani students performing well below average. There are many factors which can reduce a child from an ethnic backgrounds attainment. For instance, Material deprivation. Material deprivation condensees on income inequality and the material problems that are associated with it. An example of s uch a study is J. W. B Douglas, The Home and The School (1964). He argued that an interlocking network of inequalities existed which operated against many on the job(p) class students.This included, differential effects of regional and variations in educational provision and expenditure. Also, housing and environmental factors. Which led to chances of access to good primary schools. Therefore, hindering the chance of access to top streams. As a result, nonage ethnic children are more likely to live in low-income households. This means they face the problems that Douglas highlighted, the material factors, such as poor quality housing, no working space and even possibly bad influence of peers. One other reason for differences in educational achievement between ethnicities is the basic family life.African-Caribbean communities have a high level of lone parenthood. Actually, it is estimated 50% of African-Caribbean households have a lone-parent . This can mean that many face financial problems, this can lead to lower achievement in school (Douglas material factors). Conversely, single mothers can be a positive role model or influence for many young girls, core they perform better in education. Another explanation for ethnic differences is Language. For many children of an ethnic minority English is not their primary language. This can be a disadvantage because they may not understand exams as well as others.Also they might struggle to express themselves with limited English. Finally, some teachers may luxate poor English for a lack of intelligence, when actually this could be completely untrue, meaning that a clever child may be let downcast by the teacher who might not push the student to their full potential. However, you could argue that Chinese and Indian students first language isnt English, on the other hand in these two cultures it is the norm to learn English as a strong second language. Therefore, they are not hindered by the second language barrier, as opposed to Bangladeshis for example.Language was such a big issue that Bernstein (1973) categorised students into two groups. Elaborated and restricted. In the case of an luxuriant code, the speaker will select from a relatively extensive range of alternatives. However in the case of a restricted code the number of these alternatives is ofttimes severely limited. Bernsteins work was not always praised. For instance, Labov (1974) argued that young blacks in the United States, although using language which certainly seems an example of the restricted code, nevertheless flourish a clear ability to argue logically.Their lack of knowledge concerning the subject may reach further than just the exams they have to take. For instance, due to the large heart and soul of failing black Caribbeans and Bangladeshis (a combined total of 41% managed to get 5 A* C grades), teachers may be subconsciously prejudiced against ethnic minorities. This can lower the students attainments in many way s, one is that the teachers give the student lower grades. Another way is that the teacher negatively labels a student of ethnic minority which can lead to self-fulfilling prophecy.Racism can also lead to conflict between students and teachers, making learning a much harder task. Lastly, racism can lead to low-self esteem among ethnic minorities. A researcher who studies this was Howard Becker (1971). Becker Interviewed 60 Chicago high school teachers. He found that they judged pupils according to how most they fitted image of ideal pupil. Their conduct & appearance influenced judgement. Middle class was closest to ideal, working class furthest away & labelled as hard behaved. As a result you can see, if teachers labelled students on how they look, you can imagine how they would label a whole ethnic race.Another factor for ethnic differences in educational achievement is the ethnocentric curriculum. There are several reasons why ethnic minorities may struggle due to this curriculu m. One is that the subjects often focus on British culture naturally White British students will have grown up with this culture, so they might have a greater understanding of the content than students who grew up in a different culture. Another reason is that the content of the curriculum could lower ethnic minorities self-esteem, this is because often the white character is seen as good and superior whilst the ethnic minorities are seen as not as academic.However, it is crucial not to forget that every ethnic minority underachieves at this level. In fact, in the UK, Chinese and Indian pupils score better grades than the White ethnic race. One of the main reasons for this is the support of the parents. Research has shown that some parents of ethnic minority, such as Chinese and Indian, take more interest in their childs education, they also encourage their child more than other in other cultures. This obviously leads to higher achievement for the child.Not only the parents play a p art. Some teachers may stereotype some ethnic minorities to be level-headed and hard-working. This encouragement and sort of support can aid a student in raising their grades. To conclude, there are many sociological explanations for the ethnic differences in educational achievement, from language barriers to family life at home. However, it is important to remember not all ethnic minorities to underachieve. Rafi Kentafi Lindill 12P.

Running Head: Reframing Non-informational Matters

Reframing Non-informational MattersOther than her immediate advisors or the cabinet members the regulator should seek advice from a criminology expert, local administrators, prosecutors and law enforcement officers. Her task force should contain the following appointees the bespeak manager who go away oversee all the activities of the task force is running smoothly and report to her. A Criminology specialist who forget advise on plague reduction, prevention and stop. Government prosecutors, local administrators who will mobilize people and talk them out of crime during meeting and the law enforcement officers and the operational staff in general.The quarrel and metaphor she should use in her presentation to the individuals she would ask to serve on the task force should vary with the level of service and education but the subject matter at the end of the day should be one. The top individuals in the task force should be spoken to in the horizontal communication. They should loo k and see the governor as their leader. They should work very hard to ensure that the plan becomes efficient and effective. The governor should however speak to the lower appointee in a cultivated manner and ask for their cooperation and support to curb crime in the community. This is because the lower force men are the ones that interact more often than not with the layman. 1 of the metaphors she would use is prevention is better than cure. Her request can be worded differently to each potential member but should bring out the same inwardness to each of them so that during their next meeting they can all be signing the same song .with the same goals and objectives that is success.The governor should announce her plan to the existence in a simple and clear manner. She should be convincing and should also support her plan so as to win the public into believing it will work. Asking of questions to the public and requesting them to cooperate and help enhance the plan to succesed.Sh e should fluently elaborate to the public the merits of the plan if it pulls through.Her briefing to the media should be short and exact to the point. She should compensate the media a general over view of the plan and during the rest of the briefing process she should be busy asking the media rhetoric questions as well as using metaphor to defend herself and the plan again from their accusions.Examples she would use Dont you think that this plan if successful it kill two birds with one stone. Do you need a crime free Utopia or not? Do you think this plan will work out? Some of the tough questions she will get include why didnt you pick another(prenominal) way of getting fund? Who advised you on that strategy madam governor? How practically expenditure shall your appointed team use during planning and implement action of the plan. How will other nations react to your opinion of reducing barbarous sentences and wouldnt the criminal level increase due to this factor.One of the barr iers of communication according to (Stan S.,David .K., John .K, 2003 p85) is denial of information. For example the message whitethorn conflict with our personal beliefs or values. This factor may affect the law enforcement officer who beliefs that the criminal must be punished but the idea of preventing crime is new it might be ignored by some causing the plan not to work as supported to. Another barrier is lack of motivation or interest in communication and interest in the message. The manager for example is supposed to be condition a feedback of the progress of the plan from the lower workers. These messages are in a memoranda form. If the memos become very many the manager may lose the interest to read them that way communication barrier is created.Non-credibility of the consultation. The police force in is cognize to be very corrupt in their day to day work. If the police bring information to other members of the force e.g. the criminology expert may not cerebrate the messa ge due to their lack of credibility. This barrier is created. Use of complex channels of communication is another barrier to effective communication among the workforce. Important information does not reach the lowly workers because the transmission process is slow.These barriers can be overcome through the following techniques. In the case of lack of motivation. The manager would choice another form of communication like the fax machine which would give audio messages. This would motivate and interest him to know what the people are saying. In the case of non-credibility of the source the appointed law enforcement officers should strive and shun corruption and the group should also put depressed law to stop the vices. The lack of communication skill should be avoided by the individuals lacking the skills going through an academic training, formal education should also be given as well as streetwise lyric taught. A less complex communication channel should be created to allow for all members access information quickly.The plan should first be written down on a piece of paper. It should then be drawn in a diagram to show how co-operation of and the personnel in implementing it. The plan should then be produced into hard copies and given to the operational staff.Get one of the eloquent speakers with good communication skills.The elaborate the operational personnel showing them the job and how you wish the job to be done. Speak clearly on the part to be played by each operational staff. Elaborate on the means through which feedback is to be given to the manager as each person works to achieve the goals and objectives of the plan.The general barriers to communication that will exist among task force members and level of policy makers, administrators, substance managers, down to the operational staff are communication skill as they are of different educational level, complex communication channel leading to lamentable transmission of information. Poor organizat ional climate is another barrier that generally affects the member of levels bringing about gossip.ReferencesKreps,G.Organizational Communication.2nd ed. New York Longman, 1990.Farace, R.,Monge,P.and Russell, H.Communicating and Organizing.New YorkRandom House, 1977.

Intoxication: Not a Defence for Crime

Intoxication Not a Defence for Crime There has been too many times where crapulence was used as a defensive structure in criminal cases where it should non have been considered as a refutal. Intoxication in criminal cases and whether it should be considered or not considered as a defence is very moot. Voluntary crapulence should not be considered as a defence of crime.The main arguments against using intoxication as a defence are the degree of proof required to prove intoxication is not sufficient, it is unfair to the dupe if the accused gets away with a illumination sentence or no sentence at all because of the defence of intoxication, and last, in the case of intended intoxication, the mens rea should be considered quelled toward general intention crimes. Analyzing these arguments proves that unpaid intoxication should not be used as a defence for criminal cases.The degree of proof required to prove intoxication is not rigorous enough. The degree of proof required to prov e intoxication is balance of probabilities. When dealing with a serious the boot, much(prenominal) as murder or informal assault, the degree of proof for intoxication should be beyond a reasonable doubt, just like the prosecution is required to prove their case beyond a reasonable doubt to convict the accused. There can be cases where intoxication might have occurred post offence and used as a defence to avoid penalties or punishment.For example, Mr. X bought a bottle of alcohol at 5 PM and went home. He killed his wife with a knife at 7 PM. After killing his wife, he started drinking and became extremely intoxicated. At 9 PM, his son came home and found his mother (wife of Mr. X) dead and his father (Mr. X) unconscious with a bloody knife close to him. The son called the police and the father was arrested with police charging the father with murder. The accused, Mr. X, went on to claim intoxication as a part of his defence.The charge was reduced to manslaughter. This example sho ws that the degree of proof required proving intoxication is not rigorous enough. Mr. X began drinking after he killed his wife, however because there was no witness, the claim of Mr. X that he was intoxicated at the time of his wifes murder cannot be effectively refuted and he would be tried for a lesser charge. Mr. X was able to reduce his charge by making a false statement while not having to prove that statement. That is obstruction of jurist and perjury. If ntoxication was not allowed to be used as a defence of intent of the crime, Mr. X would not be able to get his charge reduced and consequently he would be charged with the crime that he actually committed. If intoxication is used as a defence for crime and the accused receives a lighter sentence or no sentence at all, it is unfair to the victim. If a person has been sexually assaulted by someone who was intoxicated, is it not the victims well(p) to see justice being served? R. v. Daviault, 1994 3 S. C. R. 63 is a case whe re Mr.Daviault sexually assaulted an elderly woman with a disability during extreme intoxication. This is a controversial case because of the argument made by Justice Cory that if Daviault had only been a little drunk, he may have had the kind ability to make the finding that he should not sexually assault the victim. In this case, it was established that the defence of intoxication could only be used in cases of extreme intoxication such as this. This case is an example of exceptional circumstances where extreme intoxication was proven beyond a reasonable doubt.The disabled elderly woman who was the victim of this case still suffered and does not even have the satisfaction of recognizeing that the person that wronged her may not be punished. The degree of intoxication may not even matter in most sexual assault cases. Research suggests that intoxication is merely used as an excuse to get away with the crime. On Canlii. org (Canadian Legal Information Institute), only a small perc entage of sexual assault cases involved incest while intoxicated. Canlii. org showed the difference in search results of sexual assaults cod to intoxication and incest due to intoxication. 490 cases were found of sexual assault while intoxicated and 121 cases were found of incest while intoxicated. One could question that if a sexual offender, while intoxicated, has the mental ability to distinguish between a related and unrelated person, then that offender has the mental ability to have the reasonable mind set to know the consequences of sexual assault and that it is illegal. Further to the research on Canlii. org, the use of intoxication as a defence encourages crime while being insensitive to the postulate and rights of the victim.For example, a victim of sexual assault may be labelled as available or worse, hurtful words that may lead to mental issues. A lighter sentence to the perpetrator would not help the psychological damage that victim has to deal with. Instead it might be worse because the victim may feel that they have been wronged for the second time the second time being by the justice system. There are always precautions that can be taken to avoid situations when one is voluntarily intoxicated. R. v. Mascarenhas, 2002 60 O. R (3d) 465 (C. A. ) is a case of cause under the influence.In this case, Mascarenhas was driving under the influence and killed two pedestrians. This is a general intent crime where a mens rea is not required. The proof of the act, actus reus, is required. Mascarenhas may not have intended to kill the pedestrians but nevertheless, two lives were taken. Mascarenhas cannot use the defence of intoxication for this crime. Precautions could have been taken to avoid the accident. If Mascarenhas had taken reasonable care of himself or possibly had someone to take care of him in voluntary intoxication, driving under the influence would have been avoided and therefore the pedestrians might still be alive.This connects to criminal n egligence. Mascarenhas disregarded the safety of others and therefore was also sentenced for being criminally negligent. During voluntary intoxication, a person should be responsible his or her own actions. Mascarenhas was convicted with criminal negligence, impaired operation of a motor vehicle as well as other convictions. This case is a good example of when the justice system made the right decision. The mens rea of an intoxicated person was not taken into consideration since the right does not require mens rea as a part of a general intent crime.Other crimes should also be dealt in the same manner and consider mens rea contented if the person was voluntarily intoxicated. Based on the analysis of the arguments that voluntary intoxication does not require a sufficient amount of proof, that it is unfair to the victim, and that the mens rea is considered to be satisfied in the case of intoxication in general intent crimes, it is safe to say that voluntary intoxication should not b e used as a defence in criminal offences. shepherds crooks who are voluntarily intoxicated and commit a crime deserve the original sentence that comes with the act.The sentence should not be reduced. Voluntary intoxication means that one has the control to decide whether he or she wants to be intoxicated or not. They have the responsibility of reasonable care. Therefore, voluntary intoxication should not be used as a defence of crime. Works Cited Section 33. 1 Criminal Code (R. S. C. , 1985, c-46) Section 219. 1 Criminal Code (R. S. C. , 1985, c-46) R. v. Mascarenhas, 2002 60 O. R (3d) 465 (C. A). R. v. Mascarenhas, 2002 CanLII 41625 (ON CA) R. v. Daviault, 1994 3 S. C. R. 63 R. v.Daviault, 1994 CanLII 61 (SCC), 1994 3 SCR 63 Lamb, W. Kaye. Defence of Intoxication. The Canadian Encyclopedia. Historica Foundation, 2007. 1 Sep 2007. http//www. thecanadianencyclopedia. com. Souper, M. General defences intoxication. ordinal Form Law. 2000-2008. http//sixthformlaw. info. Intoxication and legal defences Advances in Psychiatric Treatment. The Royal College of Psychiatrists, 2013. http//apt. rcpsych. org. Weaver, Rheyanne. The Mental Health Consequences of Rape. EmpowHER, 2012. httpempower. com.

HIV sexual risk behaviors and perception of risk among college students: implications for planning interventions Essay

Final Project ProposalIntroduction Since its denudation in 1983, scientists have worked tirelessly on determining the origins and biological mechanisms of the HIV virus. The somberness of the HIV virus cannot be understated as approximately 25 million people have contracted HIV and developed help since the disco genuinely of the virus. During the progression of knowledge surrounding the virus, statistical analysis of HIV related data displays regional, socioeconomic, and racial inconsistencies regarding HIV transmitting. From a global perspective, the discrepancies in HIV prevalence between wealthy and low income countries are unsettling to say the least. For instance, Sub-Saharan Africa accounts for approximately 2/3 of 34 million individuals currently living with the HIV virus. facile analysis of such statistics might invite one to presume that African sexuality moldiness account for this large discrepancy, however, to develop a complete and nuanced appreciation of the epidemic, it is important to delve into the specifics of resource allocation, gender inequalities, and access to adequate medical care. Similarly, a superficial analysis of HIV statistics might cause one to consider HIV epidemic largely affects and middle and low income countries and need not be extensively discussed within developed nations. Such lines of thinking cash in ones chips to address the fact that international connectivity through economics and travel make the HIV virus capable of permeating national borders. Due to the international danger posed by the virus, it is crucial that scientist and policy makers from high, medium, and low income countries make a collective attempt to understand the root causes of HIV infection discrepancies. By collar inconsistencies in HIV infection, one is then able to appropriately address the issues he or she has identified. What is important to note is that approaches to specific issues exacerbating HIV infection discrepancies wh itethorn have to be altered for respective communities. In the same way ,one must understand factors accounting for HIV infection inconsistencies, one must similarly note that the nuances of a given community will significantly impact the efficacy of a prevention mechanism. Although the nuances of a given community may differ, we propose that the majority of root causes associated with increased risk of HIV infection are maintained irrespective of national borders. For the purposes of our research, we hope to analog the potential factors track to increased risk of infection within African communities as well as marginalized subpopulations within the United States, specifically on the Williams College Campus. For all intents and purposes, the research we express at Williams College cannot wholly reflect all college campus environments, however, we anticipate that our research will provide an analytical and informative way of understanding increased risk of marginalized subpopulatio ns. To look into an indebt analysis, we will be discussing the role of gender dynamics in increasing an individuals risk to HIV infection. Specifically, we aim to observe whether on that point is a correlation to gendered sexuality and increased risk behaviors. Utilizing the piece written by Patrica McFadden, we have come to understand the correlation between sexuality and power, and how the lacking focus on on fe phallic sexuality has consequently limited their power. Given the previous statement, one can then presume that the inflation of male sexuality has drastically altered the power dynamic between the two sexes. Our research at Williams College will highlight possible restrictions on female students may disallow them from protect themselves. For instance, a female student may not feel comfortable insisting upon contraceptive, and this inability to insist upon contraceptive significantly increases her likeliness of infection. Within a setting such as Williams College, one might inquire how an individual would not insist upon protection given the literature surrounding the HIV virus. To coiffe this question, one has to acknowledge that stigma and cultural surveillance are powerful deterrents to women taking the sexual initiative. The cultural reinforcement of passive female sexuality, thus the de facto male sexuality is dominant. Since only the male sexuality is acknowledged as dominant, the male will be considered the actor who ultimately initiates and determines the details of the sexual encounter. A potentially interesting point of inquiry would be to get an understanding of to what extents females and males on the Williams campus relate to typified gender sexualities.Results The survey was generally short and involved three questions. The prototypical question that we asked was in regards to how many students that people think are infected with HIV/AIDS on campus. The choices available to the respondents were there is no HIV/AIDS on cam pus, 1 to 3 students, 4 to 10 students, 10 to 30 students and 30+. According to the results of the survey , Black manpower wait oned that there were more than 4 cases of HIV/AIDS on this campus. Among all the groups involved in the survey Black Women were the only group to answer that they believed that over 30 students were infected by HIV/AIDS. On their part, white women were of the idea that there were less than 10 HIV/AIDS cases on campus. Neither washcloth Men nor White Women answered that there were over 10 cases of HIV/AIDS, and comparatively no Black Women or Black Men answered that there was no presence of HIV/AIDS on campus. The second question that we asked was, whose responsibility it was to bring the base hit to a sexual encounter the choices were both have an equal responsibility, you, your partner or neither has a responsibility. According to the results of the survey, White Men was the only group that responded that it was their responsibility to bring the condom to the sexual encounter. On their part, black women responded that it was the duty of their partner.all the respondents were more seeming to answer the choices where they have some sort of control . Black Men and Black Women believed that it was the mans responsibility to bring the condom, whereas both White Men and White Women answered that it was their own responsibility to bring the condoms. The third question that the respondents were asked during the survey was ,whose responsibility is it to insist on condom use and the answer choices were the same as the second questions. The most popular response among both black and whites was,both have responsibilities,.However the genders did align but they were different from each other. Black Women and White Women answered only with the choices where they had control of insisting on condom use. Black Women were 23% more likely than Black Men to answer that it was their responsibility to insist on condom use and White Women w ere 9% more likely than White Men to answer that it was their responsibility. Black Men was the only group to answer that it was their partners responsibility to insist on condom use. The fourth question that was asked during the survey was, if you and a partner you just met are sweet in sexual drill and they do not want to use a condom, what do you do? The answer choices were insist on condom use while still engaging in non-penetrative sexual activities, Start off insisting on condom use but eventually give in to having unprotected sex, like a shot refusal to engage in any further sexual activity unless they agree to use a condom or Have sex without a condom, no protest. Black Women was the only group to refuse sex unlimited if their partner did not agree to use a condom and in general. Although White Women were most likely to insist on condom use, a large proportion of them also answered that they would refuse outright. Black Women were 40.25% more likely to refuse outrig ht than Black Men and White Women were only 11.5% more likely than White Men to refuse outright. The fifth question was similar to the fourth question, but unlike in the fourth question, all groups answered that they would engage in unprotected sex. However, the majority of Black Men and Women and White Women still insisted on condom use 56%, 64% and 63% respectively. White Men were the only group whose majority chose to have unprotected sex at 63%. Black Women and White Women had very similar percentages for insisting on having protected sex. However, Black Women was more likely than White Women to engage in unprotected sex, with no protest ,while White Women was more likely to start off insisting on condom use and eventually give in. The sixth question asked about how strongly the respondent tangle that they had control and could voice their opinion in a sexual encounter, and a Likert Scale was used (1= Strongly Disagree to 5= Strongly Agree) to gauge the responses. tout ensemble races felt very strongly that they had control and could voice their opinion in a sexual encounter, but Black Men and Black Women were the only groups to answer with 3, which indicates a neutral feeling. A significantly larger proportion of Black Women than White Women, 11.6% more, answered with the highest choice of 5, which indicates strongly agree.References1. Jozkowsk, KristenN., and SonyaA. Satinsky. A Gender Discrepancy Analysis of straight person Sexual Behaviors in Two University Samples.(2013) Web.This source provided us with a experimental study exploring the sexual activities on a college campus. We may use this source to pretense out own experiment on a smaller scale, and this experiment similarly allows us to analyze sexual behaviors on other college campuses which may reverberate Williams college.2. Adefuye AS, Abiona TC, Balogun JA, Lukobo Durrell M HIV sexual risk behaviors and perception of risk among college students implications for planning inter ventions. BMC Public Health2009,9281.This source allows us to again follow a experimental model tracing high risk behaviors on college campuses around the nation. In an ideal world, we will see possible trends that we can use to tangle analytic conclusions about gender dynamics. Before we can address race and gender, however, it is important that we understand the types of behaviors we need to watch for within our own studies. Another despotic aspect of the source is that it delves into racial dynamics of the HIV infection.3. Mathes, Eugene W. Why is there a Strong Positive Correlation between Perpetration and being a Victim of Sexual Coercion? an Exploratory Study.Journal of Family Violence28.8 (2013) 783-96.ProQuest.Web. 10 Nov. 2013.When we discuss gender dynamics, it will be important to outline sexual coercion which may expose students to high risk behaviors.4. Ahmed, Aziza. Feminism, Power, and Sex Work in the Context of HIV/AIDS Consequences for Womens Health. Harvard Jour nal of Law and Gender. 341 (2011)This article provides background surrounding the stifled sexuality of women around the globe and how this stifling of sexuality robs women of their presence within the sexual landscape. Without sexual freedom, women are ineffectual to excise their power, thus, they may not have the voice to protect themselves sexually. We aim to observe whether this restriction can be observed on the Williams campus.Source put down

Old Company Case Essay

We are a very old company, but we recognise that our customers are changing, so we continually develop new harvest-homes to reflect this. David lee, managing director, lee side Kum Kee companion2The problem with a lot of family-controlled local cracks that have a long history behind them is that its very easy to become old and run out of steam. Antony Chow, vice-president for Greater China, RSCG (an advertising agency)3The sauce company downwind Kum Kee, one of the best known Hong Kong blemishs, sure did non have the problem mentioned above, although it did have a long history that began in 1888, and was run by the same family through four generations. The company was founded by Lee Kam Sheung as a small oyster-sauce manufacturer in Guangdong Province, China. It relocated to Macau in the early 1900s, moved once to a greater extent to Hong Kong after World warfare II, and was based there in the decades afterwards. Lee Kum Kee was already expanding beyond the Guangdong-Macau- Hong Kong distribution network in the 1920s to North America, when it was also making shrimp paste. In the 1970s and 1980s, after the torch passed to thirdgeneration leader Lee Man Tat, there was a diversification of geographic markets as well as increases at a very quick pace. Lee Man Tats sons, who were educated in the West, inherited the leadership from their father in the 1990s, and the pace of modernisation and diversification continued while the familiaritys marketing strategy remained as vigorous and Vincent Mak prepared this Case under the supervision of Dr. Chi Kin (Bennett) Yim for figure discussion. This case is not intended to show effective or ineffective handling of decision or business processes.This Case is part of the Trade & labor Department SME case series funded by the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Trade and Industry Department SME victimization Fund. Any opinions, conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material/event (by members of the project team) do not reflect the views of the Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, Trade and Industry Department or the vetting committee for the SME Development Fund. 2003 by The Centre for Asian Business Cases, The University of Hong Kong. The ships company moreover overcame a consumer-confidence crisis called 3-MPCD crisis in the late 1990s and early 2000s and continued to thrive. By early 2003, Lee Kum Kee had already developed more than 200 sauces. Its distribution network covered 60 countries in five continents, and its products were available in more than 80 countries. What lessons nearly strategic brand management can we learn from the way Lee Kum Kee developed, maintained and expanded the reach of its products over a whole century? What lessons intimately crisis management does the Companys handling of the 3-MPCD crisis offer?Lee Kam Sheung was born in 1868 in Qibao, a village in Xinhui, Guangdong Province, China. Threat from local gangsters com pel him to leave his farming life and move to a small island called Nam Shui in the same province, where oysters were abundant. Lee opened a small restaurant there, often apply oysters as stock for soups. One day, while cooking oysters, he absent-mindedly walked away for a long time, so that when he remembered the oysters and looked at the soup, it had already become a thick, strongly aromatic liquid, which he found delicious. Hence the birth of Lees oyster sauce, which he began producing under the brand name of Lee Kum Kee in 1888 (Kee meaning company in local Cantonese). In 1902, a fire destroyed Lee Kam Sheungs manufacturing plant, and he moved to nearby Macau, where oysters were also abundant.He began to sell shrimp paste as well as oyster sauce, and his business soon covered Guangdong, Macau and Hong Kong. Of Lee Kam Sheungs three sons and two daughters, the starting timeborn son died young, and the family business passed to his two remaining sons, Lee Shiu Tang and Lee Shiu Nan. The former was responsible for marketing while the latter took up product part and improvements to production procedures. The Companys products were already selling successfully among the Chinese immigrant population in North American cities at that time. The company opened a Hong Kong branch in 1932 while expanding to meet the increasing demands of overseas markets. In 1946, after the Second World War, the two brothers moved their headquarters to Hong Kong, where the prospering sparing climate was more conducive for businesses.The 1970s and 1980s5Lee Man Tat, son of Lee Shiu Tang, took over as Company chairman in 1972, taking the Company to new heights. His era was marked by agile and flexible marketing production enhancements through the automation and modernisation of production techniques further expansion of geographical markets and sales networks, and large-scale diversification of sauce products. One of Lee Man Tats important early moves was to launch a new brand calle d coon bear Oyster sauce, capturing the hype caused by the Chinese governments gift of a pair of pandas to US President Richard Nixon during his visit to China in 1971. The Panda brand was created as a result of slow growth in the Companys traditional product, premium oyster sauce, which was too high-priced for some(prenominal) families. Panda Oyster Sauce was reasonably priced and was expected to have stronger market penetration power.The brand, however, did not secure a good foothold at once, but after some effective marketing efforts it became a hit and outperformed the old labels. Lee Man Tat learned from the success of the Panda brand that he needed to cater to different market segments. He soon launched a string of new products and brands at different prices and for different tastes, such as chilli sauce, sweet and sour sauce, chicken marinade and curry sauce. These products did well particularly in North American Chinese restaurants. In 1980, the Company, which was still quite small, with only 25 staff, began exploring the Mainland Chinese market. It was extremely difficult for them at the start, as they knew little about the market.Everything they exported to the Mainland was wrong, from the products themselves to packaging and prices, according to Lee Man Tats son Eddy Lee Wai Man, who joined the Company in 1980.6 The Company then reduced the number of products for the Mainland market from 50 to 15, in order to decoct its promotional efforts. The products step by step became well-received in the Mainland, although delayed payment from retailers emerged as a problem. In the 1980s, Lee Man Tats four sons Eddy, David, Charlie and Sammy returned with different US degrees to Hong Kong within a couple of years of each other and joined the Company as interns.7 They all started their stints with low-level duties but as their managerial amour increased, they began to introduce more and more new concepts from the West. When Lee Kum Kee celebrated its fi rst 100 years in 1988, the Company changed its logo to symbolise its vision of building a cultural bridge between East and West with our sauce products.The Company underwent still greater changes after the 1980s. As Eddy Lee took on more and more leadership responsibility, becoming managing director and then chairman of the group, he and his brothers unleashed new initiatives that combined the flexible strategic approach of their father with westerly business thinking. Quality and modernised branding were emphasised, as was an up-to-date information technology system. New Products, Brand Building and Market Expansion In 1992, the Company launched a super premium gourmet sauce called XO sauce, which was made from dried scallop, ham and dried shrimp, and had a variety of applications on noodles, porridge, dim sum, sushi, stir barbarian dishes and other dishes. The sauces popularity was a great triumph for the Company.The sauce was later diversified into additional variants such as XO Seafood Sauce and Premium XO Sauce with Abalone. In 1994, the Company started selling soybean plant sauce, a generic product for which there were established competitors. As a result, sales were slow at the beginning.9 The Company then observed that, in most homes, the amount of soy sauce used for dipping was fairly low, both in frequency and in volume. For the Hong Kong market, however, steamed search was popular among the Chinese, and housewives wanted to make their home-cooked steamed fish taste like those in the restaurants. Lee Kum Kee saw that it could develop a soy sauce that was sweeter than common soy sauce, ad hocally for seafood. The strategy led to success, and the Company went on to develop variants including chilli soy sauce, sweet soy sauce, saltreduced soy sauce, mushroom-flavoured dark/light soy sauces, etc.Lee Kum Kee did not invest significantly in its brand until the early 1990s.10 In 1994, it scrapped its old product labels as David Lee himself said, the old product labels were boring to him.11 The arch of the company logo became a Golden Plaque that implied a guarantee of product quality, while a detail of the traditional Chinese window frame at the border of the plaque reflected the Companys Hong Kong heritage. By the late 1990s, the Company aimed to use its name and history in Asia and the many Chinese communities around the world to penetrate the general US and European household market.12 On the industry side, the Company capitalised on its status as a premier Asian food brand to expand its network of retailers, restaurateurs and other manufacturers in the West. Most importantly, to make its products even more consumer-friendly and to appeal to young families that did not wish to spend too much time on cooking, the Company continuously widened its product line.Examples included single-use sauce packets with instructions on how to prepare specific dishes, and a larger variety of ready-made sauces that could be used with a range of ingredients. Even its oyster sauce products came in variants such as Premium, Panda Brand, Choy Sun, Vegetarian and others with added dried scallops and mushrooms. In 1998, the Company launched its first five varieties of sauce packets in the following year, it added 11 more to include dishes such as sweet-and-sour fish, black-bean chicken and dispirited tofu. These lines of products became popular in Asia and were then introduced to the West. Throughout the process of geographical diversification, for new as well as old products, the Company observed the different necessitate of different regional markets. As David Lee said13 We have different packaging and tastes to suit different markets, so a chilli product in Japan will come in smaller bottles and be sweeter and less thick, for instance, than it would be in Hong Kong.Development in China14 Lee Kum Kee built its first factory in China in 1990 the plant was located in the southern province of Guangdong. Its sales expansion also started with the Guangdong Province but gradually moved north in 1998, the company began to sell its products in Beijing. In 2002, the Companys sales in Beijing had already increased more than 10-fold since it entered the market there, while its sales in Guandong were also growing at a double-digit annual rate. The Company had three factories in the Guangdong Province and was considering setting up new ones in northern China. Lee Kum Kee was turning its market development focus back from overseas to the Mainland in the early 2000s.The potential for the development of this ostensibly huge market could also be seen in the fact that, of the 200-odd products of Lee Kum Kee, only about 60 were sold in the Mainland. As with other markets, Lee Kum Kee was sensitive about different customers tastes, so that a Lee Kum Kee sauce in Beijing might taste a little differently from a similarly named sauce in Shanghai. By 2002, the Company had more than 500 distribution networks in the Mainl and, and was ranked fourth in total sales in the sauce market, but it had not yet expanded fully into secondary cities in provinces such as Szechuan and Guangxi. In an interview in 2002, Eddy Lee said it would already be great if Lee Kum Kee could secure one per cent of the Mainland market, which was very fragmented.

Saya Robot

SAYA ROBOT ABSTRACT This Article describes an electronic mechanical machine with a Tele-operated android robot named SAYA. A robot is an electro- mechanical imposture which maybe appears as humanoid and it can performs tasks automatically. It may be done by using a remote control or a estimator interface. The Branch of Technology that deals with Robots is called ROBTICS. It was found in the daily lives for example the pet-type robot named AIBO, and a mental therapy robot and its effectiveness for elderly people. But the first uses of youthful robots have been built by William Grey Walter in 1961s as industrial robots.THE ANDROID ROBOT SAYA subsequently 15 years of research by Sayas developer Hiroshi Kobayashi, the professor at Tokyo University of Science Saya is being tested as a teacher and it is being trialed at a primary school in Tokyo. After working as a receptionist and secretary. Also the robot Saya already used as traffic wardens and one is even being developed to provid e phoner to Alzheimers sufferers. She can speak multiple- languages also can express some basic emotions like surprise, disgust, smile, sadness. Because her face has simple structure and basically consists of mechanical frame and seventh cranial nerve skin.SAYA THE ROBOT TEACHER In the class path, there are Saya and some control equipment and the control system of Saya requires a compressor and electronic equipments. In the other side, theres an operation room with two monitors one of them is used for the control, and the other one used for the observation. Saya is able to assign tasks to students, as well as perform facial expressions to denote her live mood. She also able to catch students passing notes in class, as well as plagiarizing one anothers homework. The operator is able to hear students from the speakers and answer to students as well.THE MAIN PURPOSES OF SAYA ROBOT The robots main purpose was to encourage children to be interested in science and technology its also expected to contribute to childrens motivating to learn, in addition it would benefit schools suffering from a shortage of human teachers. The robot was originally developed for companies who want to cut costs by switch office workers such as secretaries and receptionists with an android. BIBLIOGRAPHY LIST cdn. intechweb. org/pdfs/19461. pd http//www. news. com. au/news/saya-robots-new-job-as-a-schoolteacher/story-fna7dq6e-1111119087968

Week Assgn

Mixed Methods Lori Hudson Walden University Mixed methods research is combined with qualitative and decimal research methods which consist Of the quality and emphasize mea positive(predicate)ment and variables (Dentin & Lincoln, 2003). In this paper, I will provide culture about mixed methods and what type of designs, timing, and selective information collection that was utilise by Tortes. I will in like manner reason the metaphysical lens that will be used in the study. Will also discuss the data analysis, which will deliver bendable information and the rationale as to why mixed methods were used in this particular article.Design Using the mixed methods research article by Tortes provided in the Learning Re citations, soon describe the type of design and the timing of the data collection. Theoretical Lens Briefly describe the theoretical lens that underlies the study. Be sure to support your points with scholarly support. Data Analysis Briefly describe the data analysis proce dures used in the study. Be sure to support your points with scholarly support. Rationale for Mixed Methods rationalize the rationale for using the mixed method design in this study.Be sure to support your points with scholarly support. destination Your conclusion section should recap the major points you contain made in your work. However, perhaps more importantly, you should map what you have written and what the bigger picture is. Remember your paper should be 2 3 pages not counting your title page and reference page. Please do not exceed three pages of content. birth your Application as a . Doc or . RTF file tit the filename APP+your first sign+last name.For example, Sally Rides assignment filename would be Appeasers. Use the Submit an Assignment link, choose the calendar week 9 Application basket, and then add your Application as an attachment. References Always include references. Be sure every reference is in PAP format with a hanging indent. Also, every citation shou ld have a reference and vice versa. Use the PAP manual, the Citation Guide or some source to verify your format. PAP is very specific about punctuation and how elements Of the reference are presented.

Singles

A solar day I will never go away One day I will never forget would be September first 2014. That was the day that Is made the volleyball team. I was eager to psychometric test since my friends and I did It last year. Everyday I had to wake up up at six o clock In the morning and play volleyball. The coaches made us run a mile, pass to the fundament, serve, and set. After the first day of tryouts were over I went to straight to Walter and bought a volleyball.That night I practiced and watched volleyball videos on youth working on everything that we did in tryouts. During the tryouts I had to deal with negative people who didnt want to play with me because last year in 7th direct I wasnt all that great. It really hurt my feelings that people didnt want to play on the same team with because of last year. Sometimes those girls made me go to the point where I just didnt want to do tryout anymore because they were so mean and made me feel bad.When tryouts started this year I was det ermined to make the a team I had to make it. Through tryouts I striver to be a better volleyball player and a better athlete. When I did really good and got my serves over I would pass to the target the coaches would tell me good Job or keep It up. When they said that It made me want to do better. So I did what they said and kept It up.

Which customers should HubSpot target Essay

Which nodes should HubSpot target Owner Ollies or Marketer Marys? Or perhaps only a portion of one of the segments? Give the positives-and-negatives of your choice. I personally believe that Hubspot should target Owner Ollies. Owner Allies argon already a major segment of their business. With 73% of the customers belonging to this category, they have a sound spirit of selling to this segment. It takes them less money to attract customers in this segment and the selling time is much faster. It excessively takes a smaller time period to recover the costs invested in acquiring these customers. The needs of the OO market segment was also fairly sonant to service. Owner Ollies is a bigger market segment with vast potential difference to service with the existing solution whereas Marketer maryss market needs to be create further with a comprehensive solution. Within the market, Hubspot should target the B2B segment as the churn rate in this segment is lesser compared to the B2C seg ment.PositivesNegativesEasier to sell, reject sales complexityHigher Churn rates as compared to MMs.Lower cost to acquireB2B needed more avail, as not well worse in marketing strategiesAverage churn rate of B2B is 8.7% as compared to B2Cs 11.9% MMs pay more money for monthly practiseNot established businesses, could go out of businesses in a recession Well-funded and had the money to pay Hubspots products.Lower customer loyalty, as the needs of the customer is satisfied in a few months and and then they discontinue the service. Missing out on opportunity to develop more sophisticated tools that will help expand the business in the long run.Higher Support costsMMs are likely to substance abuse incoming marketing products often.Does HubSpot have the proper(ip) set of products for the target customers you selected? If not, what product changes and/or enhancements should they make? Yes, Hubspot has the right set of products for the Owner Ollie market segment. Currently, Owner Ol lie consists of 73% of hubspots market and thissignifies a good have sex about the product offerings meeting customer needs. Hubspot offers guinea pig design solutions that makes creating and editing online content easy. It has predefined templates and can be used non-tech savvy users. SEO is important to this customer segment and Hubspot has a Link grader analyser product that satisfies this need. Hubspot software has marketing intelligence analytics for tracking the interactions with the firms content and enabled firms to analyze which of the inbound marketing programs were working to generate quality Leads.The key business need of this customer segment is a quick simple solution to generate more leads and convert those leads into sales. Hubspot can focus a flyspeck more on their Lead Grader and Lead Visit Alert solutions to enhance the impact on this customer segment and try and retain customers over time. Overall I believe, Hubspot, Offers a competitively priced product that is easy to use as well as does not require substantial technical expertise to use. therefore meeting the needs of the targeted customer segment.Market SizeOwners1,676,130 *3K/year = 5.03BMarketers612,938 *6K/year = 3.68BCustomer Lifetime time value monthly profit *lifetime acquisition costOO CLV= 250*23-1,000 = 4750MM CLV = 500*31-5,000 = 10,500 clear potential of segment = of cutoemrs in segment * probability of attracting them * average retention time * profit potential per customer

Compare and Contrast parent-child relationships in ‘Follower’, ‘Catrin’ Essay

In the following poems we see various(a) interesting examples of parent-child exclusivelyiances. Some are easier to relate to than others but most communicate the stages of ancestry and the challenges posed by becoming responsible for a nonher per give-and-take. The poets each take different lines on how they perceive/d parenthood and the each in which their children reacted.In Catrin a metaphor of an umbilical cord is used to symbolise the relationship between mother and daughter. It seems that Gillian Clarke feels that this relationship is one that can be neither won nor lost and a struggle. She goes on to describe their everlasting attachment despite this temporary separation in call of childbirth. She also says from the hearts pool that old rope, tightening around my life her she is trying to strengthen her belief that her relationship with her daughter is everlasting as she discusses the implications of childbirth on her life. After evaluating the struggle she experiences she in the long run questions whether mother hood is right for her at this moment in her life.This compares to On my first Sonne(OM)where the father experiences radical grief on account of the broken radio link between him and his Son. Ben Jonson describes his son as his right choke and joy and is evidently proud of his heir. However the poet makes what he feels is a fundamental realisation that his Son infact belongs to theology. He actually feels that it was wrong of him to put too much hope in theehis son. In this case the connection was in fact temporary and says that the son does not belong to him but God.Jonson struggles with this idea and momentarily accuses God of being unfair. He at one stage feels that he would have preferred to have had no connection/attachment to his son that have it cut short or disrupted. O, could I loose all father, now. In this poem Ben Jonson ends this poem with realisation of his mistake whereby Gillian Clarke ends Catrin in temporary confusio n. She takes the parenting if her daughter as her business while Ben Jonson admits that it isnt his child and so the childs fate is Gods takings but he insists that he will still do his paternal duty and love his son unconditionally.In assistant and The Affliction of Margaret (AM) the connection between parent and child is slightly different. In AM the parent is lonely, isolated woman who has been left by her son. Like OM the mother feels that perhaps her overbearing character is the reason for the disaster. We get the general feeling form the mother that she would like to re-establish a connection with her son.No tiding of an only child Margaret apologises and is willing to reconcile. She is one of the only parents in the four poems to admit her faults she is however not alone to worry about her son and fear for his development in the outside world.In Follower the son is connected to his father when he is young doing such activities as herode me on his back. It is historic to u nderstand that the child is in awe of his fathers strength and the use of various metaphors signal the father portrayed as globed.

Issues in Sme Development in Ghana and South Africa

International look into Journal of finance and political economy ISSN 1450-2887 relinquish 39 (2010) EuroJournals Publishing, Inc. 2010 http//www. eurojournals. com/finance. htm Issues in SME ontogenesis in gold coast and southward Africa Joshua Abor De failment of finance University of gold coast craft School, Legon Peter Quartey Institute of Statistical, Social and scotch investigate University of gold coast, Legon Abstract This opus discusses the characteristics, contributions of SMEs to stinting information, and the constraints to SME development in create countries with particular reference to gold coast and southmost Africa.SMEs in Ghana move over been noned to fork over al or so(prenominal) 85% of manufacturing trade of Ghana. They ar as well as debated to contribute about 70% to Ghanas GDP and account for about 92% of businesses in Ghana. In the Republic of confederation Africa, it is estimated that 91% of the schematic business entities ar SMEs. They also contribute in the midst of 52 to 57% to GDP and take into account about 61% to employment.Notwithstanding the recognition of the important roles SMEs play in these countries, their development is bear-sizedly constrained by a shape of factors, such(prenominal) as lack of twainer to usurp engine room limited access to world-wideist merchandises, the existence of laws, regulations and rules that impede the development of the domain weak institutional capacity, lack of management skills and training, and or so importantly finance. The paper leads some relevant recommendations to indemnity makers, development agencies, entrepreneurs, and SME managers to ascertain the appropriate strategy to change the SME sphere in these countries.Keywords SME study, Ghana, South Africa 1. 0. Introduction There is growing recognition of the important role subtle and medium trys (SMEs) play in economic development. They atomic number 18 often described as efficient and fecund agate line creators, the seeds of big businesses and the fuel of national economic engines. Even in the developed industrial economies, it is the SME welkin rather than the multinationals that is the largest employer of workers (Mullineux, 1997). Inte simpleness in the role of SMEs n the development play continues to be in the stingerting edge of polity debates in most countries. Governments at all levels stool undertaken initiatives to promote the growth of SMEs (Feeney and Riding, 1997). SME development cigargont encourage the plow of both inter and intra-regional decentralization and, they whitethorn well become a countervailing power against the economic power of large initiatives. More generally, the development of SMEs is seen as accelerating the achievement of wider economic and socio-economic objectives, including poverty embossment (Cook and Nixson, 2000).According to an OECD report, SMEs produce about 25% of OECD trades and 35% of Asias exports (OECD, 1997). International interrogation Journal of pay and political economy Issue 39 (2010) 219 SMEs represent over 90% of private business and contribute to to a greater extent than than 50% of employment and of GDP in most African countries (UNIDO, 1999). wasted enterprises in Ghana ar said to be a characteristic feature of the production landscape and obtain been noted to provide about 85% of manufacturing employment of Ghana (Steel and Webster, 1991 Aryeetey, 2001).SMEs be also believed to contribute about 70% to Ghanas GDP and account for about 92% of businesses in Ghana. Similarly, in the Republic of South Africa, it is estimated that 91% of the formal business entities are dainty-scale, Medium and Micro attempts (SMMEs) (Hassbroeck, 1996 Berry et al. , 2002). They also contribute between 52 and 57% to GDP and provide about 61% of employment (CSS, 1998 Ntsika, 1999 Gumede, 2000 Berry et al. , 2002).SMEs in that respectfore have a crucial role to play in stimulating growth, g enerating employment and contributing to poverty alleviation, accustomed their economic weight in African countries. How do SMEs in Ghana compare with their counterparts in South Africa and what policy slightons can be drawn for both countries to enhance the contribution of the firmament remains the focus of this paper. The rest of the paper is organized as follows Section two re bets the heterogeneous commentarys of SMEs. Section three discusses the characteristics of SMEs in ontogeny countries.Sections four and five judge the contributions of SMEs to economic development and the constraints to SME developments. The paper concludes in section six. 2. 0. What is an SME? The issue of what constitutes a small or medium enterprise is a major disturb in the literature. Different authors have unremarkably given different definitions to this category of business. SMEs have thus not been spared with the definition problem that is usually associated with concepts which have man y components. The definition of profligates by size varies among researchers.Some test to use the capital as tacks maculation others use skill of labour and delveover level. new(prenominal)s define SMEs in bournes of their legal status and method acting of production. Storey (1994) tries to sum up the danger of using size to define the status of a stiff by stating that in some sectors all firms may be regarded as small, whilst in other sectors there are possibly no firms which are small. The Bolton Committee (1971) first formulated an economic and statistical definition of a small firm.Under the economic definition, a firm is said to be small if it meets the chase three criteria It has a relatively small percentage of their market place It is managed by owners or part owners in a personalized way, and not through the medium of a formalized management organize It is independent, in the sense of not forming part of a large enterprise. Under the statistical definition, the Committee proposed the followers criteria The size of the small firm sector and its contribution to GDP, employment, exports, etc. The extent to which the small firm sectors economic contribution has changed over time Applying the statistical definition in a cross-country comparison of the small firms economic contribution. The Bolton Committee applied different definitions of the small firm to different sectors. Whereas firms in manufacturing, turn and mining were specify in ground of consider of employees (in which grounds, 200 or less suitable the firm to be a small firm), those in the retail, services, wholesale, etc. were defined in terms of pecuniary turnover (in which case the range is 50,000-200,000 British Pounds to be classified as small firm).Firms in the street transport exertion are classified as small if they have 5 or fewer vehicles. There have been criticisms of the Bolton definitions. These centre mainly on the apparent inconsistencies between defin ing characteristics based on number of employees and those based on managerial approach. The European Commission (EC) defined SMEs largely in term of the number of employees as follows firms with 0 to 9 employees micro enterprises 220 International Research Journal of Finance and political economy Issue 39 (2010) 10 to 99 employees small enterprises 100 to 499 employees medium enterprises.Thus, the SME sector is comprised of enterprises (except agriculture, hunting, forestry and fishing) which employ less than 500 workers. In effect, the EC definitions are based solely on employment rather than a multiplicity of criteria. Secondly, the use of 100 employees as the small firms upper limit is to a greater extent appropriate, given the increase in productivity over the last two decades (Storey, 1994). Finally, the EC definition did not assume the SME group is homogenous that is, the definition makes a distinction between micro, small, and medium-sized enterprises.However, the EC definition is as well all-embracing to be applied to a number of countries. Researchers would have to use definitions for small firms which are to a greater extent appropriate to their particular target group (an operational definition). It must be emphasized that debates on definitions turn out to be sterile, unless size is a factor which influences mathematical process. For instance, the relationship between size and performance matters when assessing the carry on of a credit programme on a target group (Storey, 1994).Weston and Copeland (1998) hold that definitions of size of enterprises contact from a lack of universal applic readiness. In their view, this is because enterprises may be conceived of in varying terms. Size has been defined in different contexts, in terms of the number of employees, annual turnover, industry of enterprise, ownership of enterprise, and value of dogged assets. Van der Wijst (1989) conceptualises small and medium businesses as privately held firm s with 1 9 and 10 99 slew employed, respectively. Jordan et al (1998) define SMEs as firms with fewer than 100 employees and less than 15 trillion turnover.Michaelas et al (1999) consider small independent private limited companies with fewer than 200 employees and Lopez and Aybar (2000) considered companies with sales below 15 trillion as small. According to the British department of flip-flop and Industry, the best description of a small firm remains that employ by the Bolton Committee in its 1971 composing on clarified Firms. This stated that a small firm is an independent business, managed by its owner or part-owners and having a small market share (Department of Trade and Industry, 2001).The UNIDO also defines SMEs in terms of number of employees by giving different classifications for industrialized and developing countries (see Elaian, 1996). The definition for industrialized countries is given as follows Large firms with 500 or more workers Medium firms with 1 00-499 workers excellent firms with 99 or less workers. The classification given for developing countries is as follows Large firms with 100 or more workers Medium firms with 20-99 workers weensy firms with 5-19 workers Micro firms with less than 5 workers.It is clear from the various definitions that there is not a general consensus over what constitutes an SME. Definitions vary across industries and also across countries. It is important now to examine definitions of SMEs given in the context of Ghana and South Africa. 2. 1. The Ghanaian line There have been various definitions given for little enterprises in Ghana but the most commonly use criterion is the number of employees of the enterprise (Kayanula and Quartey, 2000). In applying this definition, confusion often arises in respect of the arbitrariness and cut off points used by the various official sources.In its Industrial Statistics, the Ghana Statistical Service (GSS) considers firms with fewer than 10 emplo yees as small-scale enterprises and their counterparts with more than 10 employees as medium and large-sized enterprises. Ironically, the GSS in its national accounts considered companies with up to 9 employees as SMEs (Kayanula and Quartey, 2000). The value of fixed assets in the firm has also been used as an alternative criterion for defining SMEs. However, the topic Board for down in the mouth crustal plate Industries (NBSSI) in Ghana applies both theInternational Research Journal of Finance and economic science Issue 39 (2010) 221 fixed asset and number of employees criteria. It defines a small-scale enterprise as a firm with not more than 9 workers, and has plant and machinery (excluding land, buildings and vehicles) not surpassing 10 million Ghanaian cedis. The Ghana Enterprise cultivation Commission (GEDC), on the other hand, uses a 10 million Ghanaian cedis upper limit definition for plant and machinery. It is important to caution that the process of valuing fixed ass ets poses a problem.Secondly, the continuous depreciation of the local currency as against major trading currencies often makes such definitions outdated (Kayanula and Quartey, 2000). In defining small-scale enterprises in Ghana, Steel and Webster (1991), and Osei et al (1993) used an employment cut-off point of 30 employees. Osei et al (1993), however, classified small-scale enterprises into three categories. These are (i) micro employing less than 6 people (ii) actually small employing 6-9 people (iii) small between 10 and 29 employees.A more recent definition is the one given by the Regional Project on Enterprise Development Ghana manufacturing survey paper. The survey report classified firms into (i) micro enterprise, less than 5 employees (ii) small enterprise, 5 29 employees (iii) medium enterprise, 30 99 employees (iv) large enterprise, 100 and more employees (see Teal, 2002). 2. 2. The South African Situation The most widely used framework in South Africa is the definiti on of the National petty melody Act 102 of 1996, which defines five categories of businesses in South Africa.The definition uses the number of employees (the most common mode of definition) per enterprise size category combined with the annual turnover categories, the gross assets excluding fixed property. The definitions for the various enterprise categories are given as follows Survivalist enterprise The income generated is less than the minimum income standard or the poverty line. This category is considered pre-entrepreneurial, and includes hawkers, vendors and subsistence farmers. (In practice, survivalist enterprises are often categorised as part of the micro-enterprise sector). Micro enterprise The turnover is less than the VAT alteration limit (that is, R150 000 per year). These enterprises usually lack formality in terms of registration. They include, for example, spaza shops, minibus taxis and household industries. They employ no more than 5 people. Very small enterpr ise These are enterprises employing fewer than 10 paid employees, except mining, electricity, manufacturing and construction sectors, in which the figure is 20 employees. These enterprises operate in the formal market and have access to technology. Small enterprise The upper limit is 50 employees. Small enterprises are generally more established than very small enterprises and exhibit more complex business practices. Medium enterprise The maximum number of employees is 100, or 200 for the mining, electricity, manufacturing and construction sectors. These enterprises are often characterised by the decentralisation of power to an additional management layer. The National Small Business Acts definitions of the different categories of business may be summarised as set out in Table 1 below. 222 Table 1International Research Journal of Finance and Economics Issue 39 (2010) Definitions of SMMEs given in the National Small Business Act rate of Employees Fewer than 100 to 200, depending o n industry Fewer than 50 Annual Turnover (in South African rand) Less than R4 million to R50 million, depending upon industry Less than R2 million to R25 million, depending on industry Less than R200 000 to R500 000, depending on industry Less than R150 000 Gross Assets, Excluding Fixed Property Less than R2 million to R18 million, depending on industry Less than R2 million to R4. million, depending on industry Less than R150 000 to R500 000, depending on Industry Less than R100 000 Enterprise Size Medium Small Fewer than 10 to 20, depending on industry Micro Fewer than 5 Source Falkena et al. (2001) Very Small From the above, two key contrast can be drawn between the definitions of SMEs in Ghana and their counterparts in South Africa. First, Act 102 of 1996 defines SMEs in South Africa whereas there is no such legislation in Ghana.Secondly, the cut off points for the various SME size categories in South Africa are much higher(prenominal) than that of Ghana. This may be a result of the fact that South Africa has a much higher income levels than Ghana. 3. 0. Characteristics of SMEs in Developing Countries fisher cat and Reuber (2000) enumerate a number of characteristics of SMEs in developing countries under the broad headings labour characteristics, sectors of activity, gender of owner and efficiency. Given that most SMEs are one-person businesses, the largest employment category is working proprietors.This group makes up more than half the SME workforce in most developing countries their families, who tend to be unpaid but dynamic in the enterprise, make up roughly another quarter. The remaining portion of the workforce is split between hired workers and trainees or apprentices. SMEs are more labour intensive than larger firms and therefore have lower capital costs associated with job creation (Anheier and Seibel, 1987 Liedholm and Mead, 1987 Schmitz, 1995). In terms of activity, they are loosely engaged in retailing, trading, or manufacturing (Fisher an d Reuber, 2000).While it is a common perception that the majority of SMEs will fall into the first category, the resemblance of SME activity that takes place in the retail sector varies considerably between countries, and between rural and urban regions within countries. Retailing is mostly order in urban regions, while manufacturing can be base in either rural or urban centres. However, the extent of involvement of a country in manufacturing will depend on a number of factors, including, availability of raw materials, taste and consumption patterns of domestic consumers, and the level of development of the export markets.In Ghana, SMEs can be categorized into urban and rural enterprises. The cerebrate can be subdivided into organized and nonunionized enterprises. The organized ones mostly have paid employees with a registered office, whereas the unorganized category is mainly made up of artisans who work in open spaces, temporary wooden structures, or at home, and employ few or in some cases no salaried workers (Kayanula and Quartey, 2000). They rely mostly on family members or apprentices. Rural enterprises are largely made up of family groups, indivi forked artisans, women engaged in food production from local crops.The major activities within this sector include- soap and detergents, fabrics, clothing and tailoring, fabric and leather, village blacksmiths, tin-smithing, ceramics, timber and mining, bricks and cement, beverages, food processing, bakeries, wood furniture, electronic assembly, agro processing, chemical-based products and mechanics (Osei et al. , 1993 Kayanula and Quartey, 2000). Majority of SMEs are feminine-owned businesses, which more often than not are home-based compared to those owned by males they are operated from home and are mostly not considered in official statistics.This clearly affects their chances of gaining access to financing schemes, since such International Research Journal of Finance and Economics Issue 39 (2010) 223 programmes are designed without sufficient consideration of the needs of businesses owned by females. These female entrepreneurs often get the impression that they are not capable of taking advantage of these credit schemes, because the administrative costs associated with the schemes often outweigh the benefits. Prior empirical studies in Ghana have shown that female-owned SMEs often have difficulty accessing finance.Females are mostly involved in sole-proprietorship businesses which are mainly microenterprises and as such may lack the necessary collateral to qualify for loans (Aryeetey et al, 1994 Abor and Biekpe, 2006). Measures of enterprise efficiency (e. g. labour productivity or sum up factor productivity) vary greatly both within and across industries. Firm size may be associated with some other factors that are correlated with efficiency, such as managerial skill and technology, and the effects of the policy environment.Most studies in developing countries indicate th at the smallest firms are the least efficient, and there is some evidence that both small and large firms are relatively inefficient compared to medium-scale enterprises (Little et al. , 1987). It is often argued that SMEs are more innovative than larger firms. Many small firms bring innovations to the market place, but the contribution of innovations to productivity often takes time, and larger firms may have more resources to adopt and implement them (Acs et al. , 1999). 4. 0. Contributions of SMEs to Economic DevelopmentThere is a general consensus that the performance of SMEs is important for both economic and social development of developing countries. From the economic perspective, SMEs provide a number of benefits (Advani, 1997). SMEs have been noted to be one of the major areas of concern to many policy makers in an attempt to accelerate the rate of growth in low-income countries. These enterprises have been recognized as the engines through which the growth objectives of de veloping countries can be achieved. They are potential sources of employment and income in many developing countries.SMEs seem to have advantages over their large-scale competitors in that they are able to adapt more easily to market conditions, given their broadly skilled technologies. They are able to withstand adverse economic conditions because of their flexible nature (Kayanula and Quartey, 2000). SMEs are more labour intensive than larger firms and therefore have lower capital costs associated with job creation (Anheier and Seibel, 1987 Liedholm and Mead, 1987 Schmitz, 1995). They perform useful roles in ensuring income stability, growth and employment.Since SMEs are labour intensive, they are more promising to succeed in smaller urban centres and rural areas, where they can contribute to a more withal distribution of economic activity in a region and can help to slow the immix of migration to large cities. Due to their regional dispersion and their labour intensity, it is argued, small-scale production units can promote a more equitable distribution of income than large firms. They also improve the efficiency of domestic markets and make amentiferous use of scarce resources, thus facilitating long-term economic growth (Kayanula and Quartey, 2000).SMEs contribute to a countrys national product by either manufacturing goods of value, or through the provision of services to both consumers and/or other enterprises. This encompasses the provision of products and, to a lesser extent, services to unconnected clients, thereby contributing to overall export performance. In Ghana and South Africa, SMEs represent a vast portion of businesses. They represent about 92% of Ghanaian businesses and contribute about 70% to Ghanas GDP and over 80% to employment.SMEs also account for about 91% of the formal business entities in South Africa, contributing between 52% and 57% of GDP and providing about 61% of employment (CSS, 1998 Ntsika, 1999 Gumede, 2000 Berry et al. , 2002). From an economic perspective, however, enterprises are not safe suppliers, but also consumers this plays an important role if they are able to position themselves in a market with purchasing power their consume for industrial or consumer goods will stimulate the activity of their suppliers, just as their own activity is stimulated by the demands of their clients.Demand in the form of investment plays a dual role, both from a demand-side (with regard to the suppliers of industrial goods) and on the supplyside (through the potential for new production arising from upgraded equipment). In addition, demand 224 International Research Journal of Finance and Economics Issue 39 (2010) is important to the income-generation potential of SMEs and their ability to stimulate the demand for both consumer and capital goods (Berry et al. , 2002). 5. 0. General Constraints to SME DevelopmentDespite the potential role of SMEs to quicken growth and job creation in developing countries, a number of bottlenecks affect their ability to pull their full potential. SME development is hampered by a number of factors, including finance, lack of managerial skills, equipment and technology, regulatory issues, and access to multinational markets (Anheier and Seibel, 1987 Steel and Webster, 1991 Aryeetey et al, 1994 Gockel and Akoena, 2002). The lack of managerial know-how places significant constraints on SME development.Even though SMEs tend to attract prompt managers, they can hardly compete with larger firms. The scarcity of management talent, prevalent in most countries in the region, has a magnified impact on SMEs. The lack of support services or their relatively higher unit cost can hamper SMEs efforts to improve their management, because consulting firms are often not equipped with appropriate cost-effective management solutions for SMEs. Besides, despite the numerous institutions providing training and advisory services, there is still a skills breach in the SME sector as a whole (Kayanula and Quartey, 2000).This is because entrepreneurs cannot afford the high cost of training and advisory services while others do not see the need to upgrade their skills due to complacency. In terms of technology, SMEs often have difficulties in gaining access to appropriate technologies and information on available techniques (Aryeetey et al. , 1994). In most cases, SMEs utilize foreign technology with a scarce percentage of shared ownership or leasing. They usually acquire foreign licenses, because local patents are difficult to obtain.Regulatory constraints also pose serious challenges to SME development and although wideranging structural reforms have led to some improvements, prospects for enterprise development remain to be addressed at the firm-level. The high start-up costs for firms, including licensing and registration requirements, can impose excessive and unnecessary burdens on SMEs. The high cost of settling legal claims, and excessive delays in court proceedings adversely affect SME operations. In the case of Ghana, the cumbersome procedure for registering and commencing business are key issues often cited.The orb Bank Doing Business Report (2006) indicated that it takes 127 days to deal with licensing issues and there are 16 procedures involved in licensing a business in Ghana. It takes longer (176 days) in South Africa and there were 18 procedures involved in dealing with licensing issues. Meanwhile, the absence of just legislation favours larger firms, while the lack of protection for property rights limits SMEs access to foreign technologies (Kayanula and Quartey, 2000).Previously insulated from international competition, many SMEs are now faced with greater external competition and the need to expand market share. However, their limited international marketing experience, poor quality control and product standardisation, and little access to international partners, continue to impede SMEs expansion into internati onal markets (Aryeetey et al. , 1994). They also lack the necessary information about foreign markets. One important problem that SMEs often face is access to capital (Lader, 1996).Lack of adequate monetary resources places significant constraints on SME development. Cook and Nixson (2000) observe that, notwithstanding the recognition of the role of SMEs in the development process in many developing countries, SMEs development is always constrained by the limited availability of pecuniary resources to meet a variety of operational and investment needs. A World Bank study found that about 90% of small enterprises surveyed stated that credit was a major constraint to new investment (Parker et al. , 1995).Levy (1993) also found that there is limited access to financial resources available to smaller enterprises compared to larger organisations and the consequences for their growth and development. The role of finance has been viewed as a critical element for the development of SMEs ( Cook and Nixson, 2000). A large portion of the SME sector does not have access to adequate and appropriate forms of credit and equity, or indeed to financial services more generally (Parker et al. , 1995). In competing for the corporate market, formal financial institutions have shuffled their products to serve the needs of large corporates.International Research Journal of Finance and Economics Issue 39 (2010) 225 A cursory analysis of survey and research results of SMEs in South Africa, for instance, reveals common reactions from SME owners interviewed. When asked what they perceive as constraints in their businesses and especially in establishing or expanding their businesses, they answered that access to funds is a major constraint. This is reflected in perception questions answered by SME owners in many surveys (see BEES, 1995 Graham and Quattara, 1996 Rwingema and Karungu, 1999).This situation is not different in the case of Ghana (see Sowa et al. , 1992 Aryeetey, 1998 Bigst en et al. , 2000, Abor and Biekpe 2006, 2007 Quartey, 2002). A priori, it might seem surprising that finance should be so important. Requirements such as identifying a product and a market, acquiring any necessary property rights or licenses, and keeping proper records are all in some sense more fundamental to running a small enterprise than is finance (Green et al. , 2002). Some studies have consequently shown that a large number of small enterprises fail because of non-financial reasons.Other constraints SMEs face include lack of access to appropriate technology the existence of laws, regulations and rules that impede the development of the sector weak institutional capacity and lack of management skills and training (see Sowa et al. , 1992 Aryeetey et al. , 1994 Parker et al. , 1995 Kayanula and Quartey, 2000). However, potential providers of finance, whether formal or informal, are unlikely to commit funds to a business which they view as not being on a sound footing, irrespecti ve of the exact nature of the unsoundness.Lack of funds may be the spry reason for a business failing to start or to progress, even when the more fundamental reason lies elsewhere. Finance is said to be the glue that holds together all the diverse aspects involved in small business start-up and development (Green et al. , 2002). 6. 0. Conclusion This paper has reviewed various definitions of SMEs and also discussed the characteristics, contributions of SMEs to economic development, and the constraints to SME development. In reviewing the definitions of SMEs, it was concluded that there is no single, universal, uniformly acceptable definition of SMEs.Several measures or indicators have been used to define the SME sector. The most commonly used is the number of employees of the enterprise. However, in applying this definition, confusion often arises in respect of the arbitrariness and cut-off points used by various official sources. The definitions of SMEs within the context of Ghana and South Africa were also examined, given that this paper focuses on these two countries. SMEs often fall into two categories, that is, urban and rural enterprises. The former can be sub-divided into organized and unorganized enterprises.The organized groups have registered offices and paid workers, whilst the unorganized ones are mainly made up of artisans. Rural enterprises are largely made up of family groups and individual artisans. The activities in the SME sector range from clayware and ceramics to manufacturing of spare parts and electronic assembly. SMEs in Ghana and South Africa have a lot of similarities in terms of their characteristics as well as the vital role they play in the two economies. However, they differ in terms of size and regulation.For instance, the cut off point for the various categories of SMEs in Ghana are much lower than they pertain in South Africa. Secondly, whereas a national legislation defines an SME in South Africa, no such Act exist in Ghana. The study also observed that SMEs constitute a vital element of the development process, and their contributions in terms of production, employment and income in developing countries is widely recognized. Hence, vex in the role of SMEs in the development process continues to be high on the agenda of policy makers in the two countries.Notwithstanding the recognition, the development of SMEs is always constrained by a number of factors such as, lack of access to appropriate technology, limited access to international markets, the existence of laws, regulations and rules that impede the development of the sector weak institutional capacity and lack of management skills and training. However, access to finance remains the greatest concern for the majority of SMEs. This study suggests that, to improve access to credit to SMEs, entrepreneurs should be encouraged to form cooperatives since financial institutions believe peer pressure often reduces the risk 26 International Research Journa l of Finance and Economics Issue 39 (2010) of default, Secondly, the government through tax incentives can encourage certain training institutions and NGOs to provide training to entrepreneurs on simple record keeping and managerial know-how. Also, a national legislation in Ghana to define what constitutes an SME and their legal as well as tax obligations will help to integrate a number of informal enterprises into the formal framework. This should be complemented with steps to minimize the legal procedures involved in doing business in both countries.It is also suggested that technology transfer through simple, inexpensive and adaptable technology should be promoted to enhance the productivity of SMEs. References 1 2 Abor, J. and N. Biekpe, 2006. 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